Should we even have assistance dogs? The ethics behind a working canine

Dogs have worked alongside humans for thousands of years, adapting their skills, instincts, and behaviour to meet a wide range of human needs. From hunting and guarding to modern detection, assistance, and therapeutic roles, working canines occupy a unique position in society—one defined by partnership, functionality, and increasingly, a growing awareness of welfare and ethical responsibility.

Understanding this relationship is essential for anyone working with, training, or living alongside dogs. It highlights not only what dogs can do for us, but what we owe them in return.

A Long History of Human–Canine Collaboration

The working relationship between humans and dogs is deeply rooted in history. Early domestication appears to have been driven by mutual benefit, with dogs valued as companions, hunters, guardians, and social partners (Mark, 2019). Archaeological evidence from pre-Neolithic periods suggests dogs assisted humans in hunting activities, likely contributing tracking ability, endurance, and cooperative behaviour (Guagnin et al., 2018).

As human societies evolved, so did the roles of dogs. During the agricultural era, dogs became integrated into farm systems as protectors of livestock and working partners in rural economies. Their adaptability and loyalty allowed them to function in demanding environments where reliability and responsiveness were essential.

This working relationship continued to expand into structured roles in military and law enforcement contexts. Dogs were deployed as mine detectors during the world wars and later became integral to police work, including tracking and suspect apprehension (Cherkaev & Tipikina, 2018; Hart et al., 2000). More recently, their olfactory capabilities have been utilised in increasingly complex detection roles, including identifying chemicals linked to biosecurity threats.

Across history, the dog has remained a flexible working partner—shaped by human need, but grounded in biological capability.

Modern Working Dogs: Expanding Roles in Contemporary Society

Today, working dogs perform a far broader range of functions than in previous generations. While traditional roles such as livestock herding and security remain, modern working dogs are also trained for:

• Medical alert and response tasks

• Search and rescue operations

• Drug, explosives, and contraband detection

• Assistance and guide roles

• Therapy and facility-based support work

In many cases, dogs provide a highly effective alternative to technological systems or human labour, particularly in scent detection work where canine olfactory ability remains unmatched.

Working dogs are also present in entertainment and sport contexts, including film, television, and organised canine sports. While these roles differ in function, they still require structured training, welfare monitoring, and ethical handling practices (Otto et al., 2019).

Across all contexts, the welfare of the dog must remain central. Working success should never be separated from behavioural health, emotional stability, and the individual suitability of the animal.

Breed, Genetics, and Suitability for Work

Breed tendencies can provide useful insight into behavioural predispositions, particularly in relation to motivation, stamina, and instinctive behaviours. For example, Border Collies were historically developed for livestock herding and often demonstrate strong focus, environmental awareness, and responsiveness to human cues.

However, breed alone does not determine working suitability.

Even within purpose-bred working lines, individual variation is significant. Environmental influences such as early socialisation, training quality, and lived experience play a crucial role in shaping working ability. Physical health is also a determining factor, particularly in relation to inherited conditions that may affect performance. Genetic conditions such as Collie Eye Anomaly, for example, can significantly impact welfare and functional capability (Mizukami et al., 2012).

This highlights an important principle in working dog selection: suitability must always be assessed as a combination of genetics, environment, health, and temperament—not appearance or breed alone.

Welfare Across the Working Life Cycle

A critical but often overlooked aspect of working dog systems is what happens at the end of a dog’s working life.

Working dogs may retire into family homes, be rehomed, used for breeding, or in some cases, euthanised. The transition from working to non-working life can be particularly challenging when there is a sudden shift in environment and expectations.

For example, ex-racing greyhounds often experience significant adjustment when moving into domestic homes. Many have not previously lived in a household environment and may require structured support with basic learning such as house training and environmental adaptation (Paap, 2017). Without appropriate transition support, welfare and behavioural outcomes can be compromised.

This reinforces the importance of considering the full lifecycle of working dogs—from selection and training through to retirement and rehoming (Ng & Fine, 2019). Ethical working systems must account for the whole life experience, not only the working output.

Assistance Dogs: Structured Support Roles

Assistance dogs represent one of the most established and highly regulated forms of working canine. These dogs support individuals with physical disabilities, sensory impairments, and increasingly, mental health-related needs.

Typical tasks may include retrieving objects, opening doors, alerting to medical changes, or providing mobility support. Assistance dogs are generally selected for stable temperament, sociability, and trainability, with many programmes using structured breeding, foster care, and formal training pathways before placement (Otto et al., 2019).

However, demand for assistance dogs continues to exceed supply. This is particularly evident in emerging areas such as autism support and psychiatric assistance, where standardisation across training systems is still developing. In some regions, individuals may attempt to train their own dogs for assistance roles, which can present welfare and suitability concerns if undertaken without professional guidance.

It is also important to recognise that assistance roles must be matched carefully to the individual dog. While many assistance dogs are medium to large breeds due to physical task requirements, temperament and training can sometimes be more important than size depending on the role.

Across all assistance work, consistency, ethical selection, and welfare oversight are essential.

Animal-Assisted Interventions: Dogs as Therapeutic Partners

Animal-Assisted Interventions (AAIs) differ from assistance dog work in that dogs are not permanently assigned to an individual. Instead, they are integrated into structured or semi-structured therapeutic environments.

AAIs include:

• Animal Assisted Activities (informal, often volunteer-led engagement)

• Animal Assisted Therapy (goal-directed clinical interventions)

Dogs are the most commonly used species in these interventions due to their sociability, responsiveness to humans, and ability to form affiliative bonds (Bert et al., 2016).

The therapeutic presence of dogs has been explored for decades. Early work by Levinson (1962) described dogs as “co-therapists,” noting their ability to facilitate engagement, particularly in individuals who may struggle with direct human interaction. Since then, research has expanded into settings such as healthcare, education, and criminal justice systems.

Findings suggest potential benefits including reduced anxiety, improved emotional regulation, and increased social engagement in certain populations, including incarcerated individuals (Villafaina-Domínguez, 2020; Smith et al., 2023).

However, it is important to approach this field with nuance. The effectiveness of AAIs depends heavily on structure, practitioner competence, and—crucially—the welfare and suitability of the dog involved.

Ethical Considerations in Working Canine Systems

Across all forms of working canine engagement, a consistent theme emerges: welfare must remain central.

This includes:

• Appropriate selection based on temperament and health

• Positive reinforcement-based training approaches

• Regular monitoring for stress and fatigue

• Provision of rest, downtime, and retirement planning

• Avoidance of overuse or inappropriate task assignment

Dogs, like humans, experience variation in emotional states and capacity. A dog that is typically comfortable in their role may still require breaks or adaptation if signs of stress emerge. Ethical working systems must be responsive rather than rigid.

The absence of standardised regulation in some areas further highlights the importance of professional responsibility and informed practice, particularly where dogs are involved in emerging therapeutic or informal intervention roles.

Conclusion: Partnership, Purpose, and Responsibility

Working dogs have shaped human society for millennia and continue to play a vital role in modern life. Their contributions span safety, healthcare, assistance, and emotional support, reflecting both their biological abilities and their social intelligence.

However, as these roles evolve, so too must our approach to their welfare.

Effective working canine systems are not defined solely by performance outcomes, but by the quality of training, ethical selection, and lifelong care provided to the dog. When properly supported, working roles can offer dogs structure, engagement, and purpose. When poorly managed, they can compromise welfare and behaviour.

Ultimately, working dogs are not simply tools—they are sentient partners whose wellbeing must remain at the centre of every decision we make about their role in human society.

References

Bert, F., Gualano, M.R., Camussi, E., Pieve, G., Voglino, G. and Siliquini, R., 2016. Animal assisted intervention: A systematic review of benefits and risks. European journal of integrative medicine, 8(5), pp.695-706.

Cherkaev, X. and Tipikina, E., 2018. Interspecies affection and military aims: Was there a totalitarian dog?. Environmental Humanities, 10(1), pp.20-39.

Guagnin, M., Perri, A.R. and Petraglia, M.D., 2018. Pre-Neolithic evidence for dog-assisted hunting strategies in Arabia. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 49, pp.225-236.

Hart, L.A., Zasloff, R.L., Bryson, S. and Christensen, S.L., 2000. The role of police dogs as companions and working partners. Psychological Reports, 86(1), pp.190-202.

Levinson, B.M., 1962. The dog as a" co-therapist.". Mental Hygiene. New York.

Mark, J.J., 2019. Dogs in the Ancient World. World History Encyclopaedia. Viewed: 10/04/2023. Available at: https://www.worldhistory.org/article/184/dogs-in-the-ancient-world/

Mizukami, K., Chang, H.S., Ota, M., Yabuki, A., Hossain, M.A., Rahman, M.M., Uddin, M.M. and Yamato, O., 2012. Collie eye anomaly in Hokkaido dogs: case study. Veterinary ophthalmology, 15(2), pp.128-132.

Ng, Z.Y. and Fine, A.H., 2019. Considerations for the retirement of therapy animals. Animals, 9(12), p.1100.

Otto, C.M., Cobb, M.L. and Wilsson, E., 2019. working dogs: form and function. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 6, p.351.

Paap, H., 2017. Racing to retirement: understanding greyhounds' experiences of becoming pets: a dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Arts in Social Anthropology at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand (Doctoral dissertation, Massey University).

Smith, S., Dell, C.A., Claypool, T., Chalmers, D. and Khalid, A., 2023. Case report: A community case study of the human-animal bond in animal-assisted therapy: the experiences of psychiatric prisoners with therapy dogs. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 14, p.1219305.

Villafaina-Domínguez, B., Collado-Mateo, D., Merellano-Navarro, E. and Villafaina, S., 2020. Effects of dog-based animal-assisted interventions in prison population: A systematic review. Animals, 10(11), p.2129.